Teaching In The Target Language

Introduction

"The best way to learn a foreign language is to live in a foreign country."

This straightforward observation would receive agreement from most, if not all, linguists, and those who have returned from a period of time abroad, where they were subject to a bain linguistique of foreign language will testify to the accuracy of this statement. It is true to say that out of sheer will to communicate with others we are capable of acquiring a vast amount of target language in a short space of time, simply because we need to be able to understand and talk about our immediate environment. All this would seem to suggest that the ideal classroom situation is one in which the work of the classroom simulates as best as possible the very life and culture of the country whose language is being studied.

This belief has been carried through into the Draft Proposals on Modern Foreign Languages in the National Curriculum, which state that

"In attainment Targets 2 and 4 (Speaking and Writing), pupils are required to express themselves in the target language. In Attainment Targets 1 and 3 (Listening and Reading), where a response is spoken or written, it should be in the target language, except where a response in another language is a necessary part of the task, e.g. in an interpreting exercise."

This represents a move away from previous policy, whereby pupils were able to give responses in English to certain tasks (usually comprehensions) and towards a policy in which the target language is seen as the normal means of communication at all times in language lessons. Potential problems arising from this move will be considered later, although it is fair to say that any move towards the promotion of more usage of target language in classrooms must be welcomed.

In the past, the amount of target language employed in a class has been, on occasions, somewhat disproportionate to the amount of English used. Despite recognising the importance of conducting lessons in the target language, teachers in some cases have been and still are guilty of not implementing such a policy: others have grasped the policy and have been able to conduct their lessons entirely in the foreign language. Not wishing to draw a conclusion before we have examined all the factors, it can be said that the extensive use of the target language in the classroom is possible. Notwithstanding this, we have to examine to what extent the target language can and should be employed in the classroom and indeed to what extent this is desirable. To begin with, it is worth considering how we learn and acquire language and how we could possibly put this into the context of classroom studying.

How We Learn Languages

As babies, toddlers and later as children we all undergo a time of incredible language acquisition. We grow up surrounded by our mother tongue and are bombarded by words and their meanings, which we deduce from the situations we are in. We soon discover the power of language and are able to string words and eventually sentences together. The proof of the effectiveness of this method is the fact that we have all undergone it and know that it works, since we can not recall sitting down in lessons and learning the English language ab initio. All of these facts seem to suggest that the ideal classroom situation would be one which the pupils have the same opportunities and environment they have as young children.

However, the practicalities tell us that the two situations are in fact very different. Children acquiring language during their first years of life have the ideal conditions, i.e.

• They are under no real pressure to learn language.
• They grow up in a stress-free environment.
• They have the 'right to silence' until they feel ready to speak.

Although a classroom situation can be designed to approximate these conditions, it nonetheless remains rather an artificial situation: pupils are under pressure to learn a foreign language and may consequently feel stressed. As for the right to silence, a pupil cannot exercise this right for too long, since this would have a detrimental effect on that child's learning. All these potential difficulties aside, the teacher should nonetheless be aiming to create an authentic foreign atmosphere in the classroom: this will inevitably be a positive factor in good language learning.

Examining the classroom situation in more detail, it can be said that the more pupils are exposed to intelligible target language, the better their ability to learn the language becomes. This process can be seen as a cycle of language learning: as the pupil understands more target language, the greater his/her ability to use and understand the target language becomes.

However, it is not essential that language learners comprehend every aspect of the target language they hear or read: the 'gist' suffices in most cases. We all know from our own experience of our mother tongue that we may not understand every word we see or hear, but we are nevertheless certainly able to deduce the 'message' from the context and those elements of the language which we do understand. It is of course beneficial for language learners to have some kind of physical aid, be this body language or a visual aid, to facilitate comprehension. After all, we do not use language alone to communicate.

"It is important to remember that messages are not carried by words alone."

If pupils can be involved in TPR (Total Physical Response), this may be a further aid to comprehension of the target language and committing this language to the Long-Term Memory. TPR is a fun way to learn a foreign language, and, because it is fun, the pupils tend to remain on task. TPR has outperformed conventional classes in experiments conducted. Another method of language learning, suggestopedia, which utilises relaxation techniques may have had some success, but such a method does not realistically lend itself to a classroom situation. The communicative approach to language teaching embraces the techniques mentioned (with the exception of the latter), but above all insists on the usage of the target language for meaningful purposes, whilst allowing for flexibility on the standard of language. Accuracy may be desired at a later stage of learning, but it is to begin with the 'message' to be conveyed which must be the most important aspect in language learning.

Practicalities of Teaching in the Target Language

Having seen how we learn languages and how it is important to be exposed to the target language, the practicalities of using the language in the classroom must be examined. Naturally, the best place to start is with the area of classroom management. Frankliniii reports that teachers divide teaching classroom management in the target language into three levels of difficulty:

• Relatively easy: organising the classroom, giving activity instructions and chatting with pupils.
• Relatively difficult: disciplining, running tests, correcting written work, explaining meanings.
• Extremely difficult: discussing language objectives, teaching background, teaching grammar.

The issue of teaching grammar through the target language in particular is a sensitive issue amongst teachers. There are those who question the whole validity of this: does it have any advantages? What about the time factor involved? How is it done? Most significantly, do the already significant and mounting pressures in the classroom make it a sensible option? It is true that teaching grammar is likely to be the most difficult aspect of target language teaching: a common viewpoint is "Where is the logic in spending 30 minutes trying to explain a point of grammar in the target language, when it can be done in 10 minutes in English, allowing more time for quality teaching?": this is particularly true of teaching precision points of grammar, such as the concept and position of indefinite object pronouns, which may be difficult to teach even in the mother tongue.

There are many educationalists and teachers who are convinced believers in a 100 percent target language approach. It is fair to say that a majority of teachers have doubts on the practicality of this.

"For most teachers in most circumstances, teaching entirely in the target language is simply too tall an order."

This is not to say, however, that teaching entirely in the target language is impossible. Many teachers make a habit of teaching completely in the foreign language, so that the pupils are in fact totally immersed. This does, however, require a lot of skill. It would seem that such teachers are the lucky few, because for most such an approach poses many problems.

Reasons cited for the reluctance of some teachers to teach in the target language are

• They worry that children will not understand.
• They worry about behavioural problems, because some will resent being taught in the target language.
• They worry about their own knowledge of the target language.

Atkinson, in a fierce attack on the 100 per cent method expresses concern that the method is being almost blindly followed by some, without a thorough investigation of its legitimacy having been carried out.

"There is no solid theoretical evidence to support any case for a methodology involving 100 per cent target language... the prevalence of assumptions about the 'ideal nature' of 100 per cent target language has much more to do with currently fashionable notions and terminology in contemporary language teaching than with hard fact."

From research carried out amongst teachers, it is evident that the vast majority of them support a mix of the mother tongue and the target language in their lessons. Some maintain that using too much target language without pupil comprehension is bound to lead to frustration on the pupil's part and therefore to discipline problems.

How the pupils accept a 100 per cent direct method is of course vital. Some may thrive on the situation (usually those who are very keen to learn), whereas others may look at such a language lesson as a good time to 'switch off'. A further risk is that teaching in such a 'pushy' way may have the opposite effect to that which is desired: namely that some, rather than showing an interest in a foreign language and culture, may begin to resent having this forced on them. Xenophobia is the last thing that a language teacher should be encouraging. Using small 'islands' of English in a 'sea' of target language can be beneficial in helping to make the most of quality language learning time in the classroom. This allows them time to consolidate what they have learnt, before taking a deep breath and 'diving back into the sea'.

EFL (English as a Foreign Language) schools are often cited as perfect examples of how a 100 per cent target language approach can work, and they are indeed very effective. The pupils in an EFL school are, however, particularly motivated, the class sizes are smaller, there are better resources available and the language under study is used outside the classroom.vi Can the same be said of the average comprehensive school? Moreover, since EFL classes usually consist of foreign nationals hailing from various countries, there surely remains little alternative than to conduct these lessons in English. The fact remains that a move towards authenticity does not necessarily entail the expulsion of English from the classroom. It is surely better to operate a reasonable balance of mother tongue and target language, rather than to implement a policy which some teachers may not want to or may not be able to enforce.

Why Use the Target Language?

Having considered some potential problems in employing the target language, it is essential to examine the positive reasons for making it the main method of communication.

"Although it is possible to learn a foreign language through the medium of the mother tongue (as did most contemporary British teachers of Modern Languages), such teaching does not generally prepare the learner for face-to-face communication."

This quote sums up the very essence of language teaching: communication. The danger in teaching a foreign language through limited use of the target language is that we do not prepare the pupils for authentic situations. Language needs to be a real method of communication. If the classroom situation is artificial, pupils gain the impression that the foreign language is used specifically in the classroom for teaching exercises and it becomes difficult for them to appreciate that the language being taught is someone else's mother tongue. Also, should the pupils require to put what they have been exposed to in the classroom into a real situation, if they only have a limited and very structured knowledge of the language, how are they to deal with the unexpected situation? The language needs to become something that pupils are not afraid to use. In a broader sense, as a pupil becomes more and more familiar with the target language, he/she gains generally in confidence and this can only be a further aid to being able to speak with confidence in front of others and a teacher.

Teaching in the target language does require a departmental policy geared towards this aim. Problems may arise where some teachers (especially older, more established teachers oppose such a move). Fortunately however, those who disapprove of teaching in the target language are in the minority. A further argument which sometimes arises against target language teaching is that it may be detrimental to the pupil's abilities in his/her mother tongue. All the evidence from immersion schools in Canada and Wales suggests otherwise.

Strategies for Using the Target Language

The first step in putting pupils at ease in a target language situation is to surround them with it. This is an ideal opportunity to show pupils' work, key phrases and some cultural background (e.g. tourist office posters). If pupils are surrounded by important target language, such as classroom management vocabulary, they are more likely to feel happy about using it, because they have a safety net to help them, should they get into difficulty. The teacher, for his/her part, should break a lesson into clearly identifiable stages and explain these in a level of language with which the pupils are familiar. Any new information should be revised thereafter on a regular basis, so as to commit the information to the LTM (Long Term Memory).

When using the language itself, teachers should avoid using elaborate language (this can be a difficult thing to do) and try to convey a meaning using very simple language (preferably a cognate initially) and by backing this up with either body language or some kind of visual means. Since the brain receives 80 percent of its information through our sense of vision, good visuals can be an excellent aid to committing visuals to memory. A positive attitude towards error is also required. If learners are always corrected for making mistakes, they may become very unsure of their own ability in the target language and either resort to the mother tongue or simply remain silent.

On the question of teaching grammar through the target language, Halliwell and Jonesix suggest three possible approaches.

• Let grammar emerge implicitly through work.
• Use visuals to clarify grammar.
• Discuss grammar explicitly in the foreign language.

The use of diagrams or simple charts when discussing grammar explicitly can be extremely effective.

DIREKTES OBJEKT

Ich habe den Apfel gegessen.

den Apfel = ihn.

Ich habe ihn gegessen.

Should problems be encountered whilst teaching grammar in the target language, it may be necessary to set aside some time to clarify the point being introduced in English. This time should, however, be used for verification purposes only.

The Position of the Target Language at Waltham Toll Bar School

The Basic Teaching Policy document of the Modern Languages Faculty at Waltham Toll Bar Schoolxi states that

"We (the teachers) aim to increase the use of the target language both by teacher and by pupils."

The Statement of Policy on Teaching in the Target Languagexii is very thorough: it forwards the rationale behind its policy, the constraints involved and the strategies for implementing the policy. Above all, the importance of making pupils familiar with the target language as the normal means of communication in the classroom is emphasised. The position of the faculty is, however, realistic. Teachers in the faculty tend to believe that classes can be conducted mainly in the target language. Yet not one would support a 100 per cent implementation of the target language in the classroom, mainly because they feel it would be exhausting. They find that pupils enjoy working in the target language, especially when the pupils know that they have achieved something. Most teachers see mixed ability teaching as a problem area, although this issue has largely been resolved through the careful setting of pupils. The issue of teaching grammar in the target language left the teachers more or less equally divided between those who favoured it and those who thought it unrealistic.

Conclusion

Having considered the arguments for and against the extensive use of the target language, it would seem that the evidence suggests that the approach can be successful, if carried out properly. It is not, however, simply a question of whether or not to teach in the target language. Many other factors are involved, such as the teacher's confidence and mood and the pupils' receptiveness and alertness. There is, moreover, no reason to banish the mother tongue completely from the classroom. Strategies such as using a more able pupil to act as a teacher interpreter for clarification can be highly effective. As in many situations, it seems that a moderate compromise is most desirable, rather than any radical movement towards or away from the target language. Yes, the extensive use of the target language in the classroom is a practical possibility. Indeed, many teachers favour an approach whereby, for example, in one hour of teaching, fifty minutes are taken up by the target language and the remaining ten are used for clarification purposes in the mother tongue, at key points throughout the lesson. Were classroom pressures not so significant, maybe even a 100 per cent target language approach would be a viable option. It seems, however, that for the moment, the more pioneering ideas of those such as Krashen will have a long time to wait before infiltrating the average classroom.

Dated: 16/11/1994

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